LondonImage:Uk-london-bigben-tower.jpg|thumb|155px|The Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster which contains Big Ben {{otherplaces}} '''London''' is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England. It produces 17% of the UK's Gross domestic product|GDP and the City of London is one of the world's major financial capitals. London is pre-eminent in the culture, communications, politics, finance, and arts of its country, and has considerable influence worldwide. Alongside New York City, Paris, and Tokyo, London is often listed among the four major global cities. The estimated population, as of 1 January 2005, was 7,421,228 in Greater London, and several million more in London's metro area (see the Demographics section below), easily making London the largest city in the UK. Its population includes a very diverse range of peoples, cultures, and religions, making it one of the most cosmopolitan cities in Europe, and the world. Many of the world's wealthiest people are also permanent or temporary residents. London is the home of many institutions, organisations and companies, and as such retains an important role in global affairs. It has a great number of important buildings, including world-famous museums, theatres, concert halls, airports, railway stations, palaces, and offices. It is also the home of many embassy|embassies and consulates. ==Defining London== Today, "London" usually refers to the conurbation known as Greater London, which is divided into thirty two London Boroughs, and the City of London. Historically, "London" referred to the square mile of the City of London at its heart, from which the city grew. Between 1889 and 1965 it refered to the former County of London which covered the area now known as Inner London. There are other definitions of "London" for special purposes, such as the area within the London postal district; the area within the telephone area code 020; the area accessible by public transport using a Transport for London Travelcard; the area delimited by the M25 motorway|M25 orbital motorway; and the London commuter belt. The coordinates of the centre of London (traditionally considered to be Charing Cross, near Trafalgar Square) are approximately {{coor dm|51|30|N|0|8|W|type:city(7,000,000)_region:GB}}. The Ancient Rome|Romans marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone in the City. ==Geography and climate== Image:London_Landsat.jpg|thumb|250px|A Landsat 7 satellite image of west London. The prominent green space in the middle is Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park, with Green Park and St. James's Park to its right {{main|Geography and climate of London}} Greater London covers an area of 609 square miles (1,579 square kilometre|km²). London is a port on the Thames, a navigable river. The river has had a major influence on the development of the city. London was founded on the north bank of the Thames and there was only a single bridge, London Bridge, for many centuries. As a result, the main focus of the city was on the north side of the Thames. When more bridges were built in the 18th century, the city expanded in all directions as the mostly flat or gently rolling countryside around the Thames floodplain presented no obstacle to growth. There are some hills in London, examples being Parliament Hill and Primrose Hill, but these provided fine prospects of the city centre without significantly affecting the directions of the spread of the city and London is therefore roughly circular. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river than it is today. It has been extensively embankment|embanked, and many of its London tributary|tributaries now flow Subterranean rivers of London|underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level and the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacier|glacial isostatic rebound|rebound. The Thames Barrier was constructed across the Thames at Woolwich in the 1970s to deal with this threat, but in early 2005 it was suggested that a ten-mile long barrier further downstream might be required to deal with the flood risk in the future [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4162905.stm]. Image:LocationLondon.jpg|thumb|London's location within Europe London has a temperate climate, with warm but seldom hot summers, cool but rarely severe winters, and regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year. Summer temperatures rarely rise much above 33Celsius|°C (91.4Farenheit|°F), though higher temperatures have become more common recently. The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 37.9°C (100.2°F), measured at Heathrow Airport during the European Heat Wave of 2003. Heavy snowfalls are almost unknown. In recent winters, snow has generally only settled once or twice and it is rarely more than an inch (25 millimetre|mm). London's average annual precipitation of less than 24 inches (600 mm) is lower than that of Rome or Sydney. London's large built up area creates a microclimate, with heat stored by the city's buildings: sometimes temperatures are 5°C (9°F) warmer in the city than in the surrounding areas. == History == Image:StPaulsCathedral.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Paul's Cathedral during the bombing of London. {{main|History of London}} Although there is very little remaining evidence left of any pre-Roman settlement, the name '''London''' comes from the Latin name ''Londinium'', as London was founded by the Romans during their reign over the island. This fortified settlement was the capital of the Roman Britain|Roman province of Britannia. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Londinium was abandoned and a Saxon town named ''Lundenwic'' was established approximately one mile to the west in what is now Aldwych, in the 7th century AD. The old Roman city was then re-occupied during the late 9th century|9th or early 10th century. Westminster was once a distinct town, and has been the seat of the English royal court and government since the mediæval era. Eventually, Westminster and London grew together and formed the basis of London, becoming England's largest – though not capital – city (Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester was the capital city of England until the 12th century). London has grown steadily over centuries, surrounding and making suburbs of neighbouring villages and towns, farmland, countryside, meadows and woodlands, spreading in every direction. From the 16th century|16th to the early 20th century|20th centuries, London flourished as the capital of the British Empire. In 1666, the Great Fire of London swept through and destroyed a large part of the City of London. Re-building took over 10 years, but London's growth accelerated in the 18th century and by the early 19th century it was the largest city in the world. London's local government system struggled to cope with this rapid growth, especially in proving the city with adequate infrastructure. In 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works was created to provide London with infrastructure to cope with its growth. In 1889 the MBW was abolished, and the County of London was created which was administered by the London County Council, the first elected London- wide administrative body In the early part of the 20th century, Londoners used coal for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke. In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic smog, and London became known for its typical "London Fog", also known as "Pea Soupers". London is also sometimes referred to as "The Smoke", probably because of this. The Clean Air Act 1956 was introduced following the five-day "pea souper" of 5 December to 9 December 1952, which killed over 4,000 people, mandating the creating of "smokeless zones" where the use of "smokeless" fuels was required. Probably the most significant changes to London in the last 100 years were as a result of the The Blitz|Blitz and other bombing by the Germany|German ''Luftwaffe'' that took place during World War II. The bombing killed over 30,000 Londoners and flattened large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. The rebuilding during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was characterised by a wide range of architectural styles and has resulted in a lack of unity in architecture that has become part of London's character. In 1965 the London County Council was superseded by the Greater London Council (GLC). Greater London incorporated many additional suburbs into the capital, including 20 of the current London boroughs. The GLC was abolished in 1986 after conflicts between the Thatcher government and its left wing controlling group led by Ken Livingstone. The GLC's powers were delegated to the boroughs. In 2000 the pendulum swung the other way with the creation of the Greater London Authority (GLA) and the election for London first Mayor of London|mayor, which Ken Livingstone won as an independent candidate. However the mayor and the GLA have limited responsibilities and little financial independence. == Modern London == image:london.millennium.bridge.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A downstream view of the London Millennium Bridge spanning the River Thames between Tate Modern gallery and St. Pauls Cathedral|St. Paul's Cathedral. Today Greater London comprises the City of London, 32 London boroughs (including the City of Westminster), and the Inner Temple|Inner and Middle Temples. The dominant centre of activity in London is the City of Westminster (including the West End) which is the main cultural, entertainment and shopping district, the location of most of London's major corporate headquarters outside of the financial services sector, and the centre of the Government of the United Kingdom|UK's national government. The City of London, (known as the "Square Mile"), is an important financial centre. Very busy during the working week, most parts of the City tend to be quiet at weekends, since it is primarily a non-residential area. London attracts very large numbers of visitors and tourists. Tourist attractions are mainly in Central London, comprising the historic City of London; the West End with its cinemas, bars, clubs, theatres, shops and restaurants; the City of Westminster with the Royal palaces of Buckingham Palace, Clarence House etc., the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea with its museums (the Science Museum, Natural History Museum, and Victoria and Albert Museum) and Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park. Other important tourist attractions include the Bankside area of Southwark with the Globe Theatre, Tate Modern, and London Bridge, Tower Bridge and the Tower of London, Tate Britain on the Embankment, the British Museum in Bloomsbury. There are many other museums and places of interest. ==London Districts== ''See also: Inner London, Outer London.'' ===Central London=== Image:EnglandLondon.png|right|thumb|200px|Greater London and the Regions of England. ====City of London (the "Square Mile")==== The City of London is the principal financial district of the United Kingdom, and is one of the most important in the World. It is governed by the Corporation of London, an ancient body headed by the Lord Mayor of London. The City also has its own police force, the City of London police. Once dominated by the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, it is now home to many tall by buildings, including the tallest, Tower 42 (formerly, and popularly still, known as the NatWest Tower) and 30 St Mary Axe (popularly known as the "Gherkin", built in 2003). The City has only a small (c. 7,000) resident population, but a daytime working population of more than 300,000. Its primacy as the chief financial district has been directly challenged in recent years by Canary Wharf in East London. ====The West End==== The West End of London|West End is the most popular shopping and entertainment district in London. Oxford Street is one of the best known shopping streets in the world. Running from Tottenham Court Road in the east to Marble Arch in the west, via Oxford Circus where it crosses Regent Street, it is home to many large department stores and shops (Selfridges, John Lewis, Marks and Spencer). South of Oxford Street's eastern end is Soho, a network of small streets crowded with restaurants, pubs, clubs, smaller shops and boutiques, and theatres and cinemas, as well as media companies and film, advertising and post-production companies. Soho is also well known for its very lively club and bar scene, and the notorious sex industry. Piccadilly is an elegant thoroughfare running from Piccadilly Circus in the east to Hyde Park Corner in the west. It is adjacent to Mayfair, and Green Park. Regent Street and Bond Street are important thoroughfares. ===East London=== East London, England|East London saw much of London's early industrial development and much of it now is being extensively redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway. It is also key to London 2012|London's bid to host the 2012 Olympics. Further afield, there is much suburban development. ==== The East End ==== The East End of London is closest to the original Port of London, and tended for that reason to be the area of the city where immigrants arriving into the port would settle first. Successive waves of immigrants include the France|French, the Huguenots, Belgium|Belgians, Jews, Gujaratis, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and many other groups. The East End extends from the eastern side of the City of London and includes areas such as Whitechapel, Mile End, Bethnal Green, Hackney, Bow and Poplar. The area has many of places of interest including many of London markets|London's markets, (for example Columbia Road market|Columbia Road Flower Market, Old Spitalfields market|Spitalfields Market, Brick Lane Market, Petticoat Lane Market), and several museums, including the Geffrye Museum and the Museum of Childhood in Bethnal Green. The East End is an area of uncertain delimitations. It abounds with legend, sentimentality and cockneys. It has a somewhat clichéd history of working class cheer, resilience, organised crime and gangsters such as the Kray Twins, and poverty, ameliorated by a spirit of British toughness. ====Docklands==== Image:Canary Wharf complex.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Canary Wharf complex: the tallest building, 1 Canada Square, has been the UK's tallest skyscraper since 1993. The Docklands, on the Isle of Dogs, has developed enormously since the early 1980s. For a period in the early 1980s many warehouse buildings in Wapping had been occupied and used as artists studios and low cost loft living spaces. This inevitably drew the attention of property developers who gradually (and then not so gradually) moved in to take over. The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up to accelerate the process, and the first phases of major development started to reshape the area, culminating in Canary Wharf, whose best known feature is the 1 Canada Square office tower (which is often incorrectly called "Canary Wharf"), which has been the UK's tallest skyscraper since 1993. A massive scale development within the last three or four years has added a great many more skyscrapers, and many large businesses (investment banks, law firms, etc.) have moved in. A new headquarters for HSBC and Barclays as well as the European headquarters of Citigroup, have now been completed, and are in use. Attracted by this growth, restaurants, bars and nightclubs have opened, there is a shopping mall beneath the Canary Wharf structure, and a cinema complex has opened in the area. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) serves the area connecting to the London Underground at Bank and Monument stations|Bank station. There is a huge sports and music venue nearby, London Arena. There has also been a great deal of residential development in the area, extending west around Limehouse Basin and towards Wapping, where loft apartments are ''de rigueur'' for a community of bankers, software developers and others working in the financial service industries in and around Docklands. Further east in the London Borough of Newham is London City Airport and the ExCeL Exhibition Centre. ===West London=== West London includes many of the traditionally fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, made famous recently by a Notting Hill (movie)|film of the same name starring Hugh Grant and Julia Roberts. Nearby is the famous antique market at Portobello Road. Kensington and Chelsea are the most expensive places to live in the country. The area is also famous for the Kings Road, a distinguished and attractive shopping street and thoroughfare. Further to the west, at White City, near Shepherd's Bush, is the principal operating centre for the BBC while in the extreme west, in the London Borough of Hillingdon, lies Heathrow Airport. ===South London=== Image:IMG_0077.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The London Eye is a recent, and largely welcome, addition to the London skyline. South London contains such diverse districts as Wimbledon (famous as the home of the major tennis Wimbledon Championships), Bermondsey, and Dulwich. Redevelopment of Elephant and Castle, a road intersection and district close to the centre of the city, is due to start in 2006. Greenwich is on the banks of the Thames where the river broadens into a wide meandering reach of muddy water. It is an historic neighbourhood and boasts a fine Greenwich Park|park and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. It is also has a popular market. Brixton, Camberwell and Peckham are home to many families (and their descendants) who immigrated to London from the West Indies during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, sometimes known as British Afro-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbeans. ===North London=== North London includes suburbs such as Hampstead and Highgate which retain a village atmosphere. North London is more hilly than the south, and many of the hills give excellent views across the city. Large parks include Hampstead Heath, which includes Parliament Hill, noted for its fine views over the city, and the Hampstead bathing ponds; and Alexandra Park, London|Alexandra Park, site of Alexandra Palace. Many areas have significant minority populations including Stamford Hill, home to a significant community of Orthodox Jews, and the Green Lanes area of Harringay which has a large Turkish community. Islington is one of the more affluent areas in North London, and it is also home to the best football club in the world, Arsenal FC. ==Demographics== Image:London_iss_c1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|London by night as seen from the International Space Station. The London Orbital M25 motorway can be seen ringing the city, most notable here to the south, and two dark spots on the edge of the densely packed lights of Central London are just noticeable in this thumbnail view: Hyde Park and Regents Park. London had about 860,000 people in 1801 (in comparison, Paris had about 670,000 in 1802), and the population of Edo (modern-day Tokyo, Japan), at the time the largest city in the world, has been estimated at 1 million to 1.25 million people. London was the most populous city in the world from 1825 until 1925, when it was overtaken by New York City. Residents of London are known as "Londoners". In the 2001 census, the City and the 32 boroughs (some 1,579 km² or 610 square miles) had an official 7,172,036 inhabitants, making London one of the most populous cities in Europe alongside Moscow and Paris. Subsequent reviews suggested that the returns were understated, and that the population on Census Day was closer to 7.29 million. The official estimate of London's population in mid-2003 is 7,387,900 [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D8561.xls] In the 2001 census, 76% of these seven million people classed their ethnic group as white (classified as United Kingdom|British White, Irish people|Irish or "Other White" in the Census 2001|Census of 2001), 10% as Indian, Bangladeshi or Pakistani, 5% as black African, 5% as black Caribbean, 3% as mixed race and 1% as Overseas Chinese|Chinese. The largest religious groupings are Christianity|Christian (58.2%) and Atheism|No Religion (15.8%). 21.8% of inhabitants were born outside the European Union. The Irish are the largest foreign-born group in London (numbering approximately 200,000). The population of the urban area of London at the 2001 census, as calculated by the Office for National Statistics, was 8,278,251 inhabitants. (External reference: [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=8271&More=Y]) London urban area is the third largest in Europe, behind Moscow (11.7 million inhabitants in 2000) and Paris (11.5 million inhabitants as of January 2004). As for the metropolitan area of London: unlike many other countries, the United Kingdom|UK does not provide national metropolitan area population figures based on commuter percentages and economic influence. This is left up to each individual city to define. This has created much confusion when comparing London's true metropolitan area region with others around the world. It is helped even less by the term "Greater London" for the political entity of the "City Proper", which is often confused as a metropolitan area. Without a specific national reference to London's metropolitan area, many different sources provide alternate definitions. One such definition describes the London metropolitan area (6,267 square miles, 16,043 km²) with a population of 13,945,000 — larger than the combined populations of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. (External references: [http://www.demographia.com/dm-lonarea.htm], [http://www.lbwf.gov.uk/demography/census/london/london_boroughs_census2001.pdf]) If this definition is followed, then London is the largest metropolitan area of Europe, along with Moscow (whose metropolitan area has somewhere around 14 million people), and above Paris (11.5 million people in the metropolitan area in 2004). However, the definition used here for the metropolitan area of London should be taken with a lot of caution, as it includes areas quite far away from London, such as Dover, right by the English Channel, or Colchester, in the very north of Essex. Discounting eastern Kent, northern Essex, and West Berkshire, the figure is closer to 12 million to 12.5 million people. In 2004, the Government of Greater London officially defined a metropolitan region centered on London covering 27,224 km² (10,511 square miles) with a population of approximately 18 million people, including a large portion (though not all of) the South East England and East of England regions (As described in the "London Plan" from the Mayor of London external link below). A metropolitan region is not the same as a metropolitan area. It is a region where there are a vast number of linkages and networks between all the urban settlements. Another metropolitan region is the one extending from Rotterdam to Cologne along the Rhine River, with about 30 million people in it. It should be noted, however, that the metropolitan region of London defined here bears little or no relation to what "London" is understood to be by the British public. (External references:[http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies/sds/london_plan/lon_plan_all.pdf],[http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies/sds/london_plan/lon_plan_1.pdf],[http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies/sds/draft_london_plan/dlp_ch1.pdf]) Image:London_Eye_panorama.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Panorama of London taken from the London Eye. ==Government== Image:City hall london.jpg|thumb|200px|City Hall (London)|City Hall at night, abnormally lit. The Greater London Authority meets here. Greater London is divided into the 32 London boroughs and the City of London. The boroughs are the most important unit of local government in London, and are responsible for running most local services in their respective areas. The City of London is run not by a conventional local authority, but by the historical Corporation of London. The Greater London Authority (GLA) is the London-wide body responsible for co-ordinating the boroughs, strategic planning, and running some London-wide services such as policing, the fire service and transport. The GLA consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The mayor is elected by the Supplementary Vote system while the assembly is elected by the Additional Member System. The incumbent Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, was elected as an independent candidate in the London mayoral election, 2000|2000 election. Despite opposition from all the main political parties and the press, his popularity with Londoners has remained high. Livingstone was expelled from the Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party when he opposed the official Labour candidate Frank Dobson in the 2000 Mayoral election. Re-admitted by that party in 2004, he was re-elected as Mayor as an official Labour candidate in the London mayoral election, 2004|election later that year. Previous London wide administrative bodies were the Metropolitan Board of Works from 1855-1889; the London County Council from 1889-1965; and the Greater London Council (GLC) from 1965-1986. When the GLC was abolished, most of its functions were devolved to the London boroughs, while others were taken over by Local government in the United Kingdom#Joint-boards|joint-boards or other unelected bodies. The boroughs thus enjoyed "unitary authority|unitary status" and a degree of autonomy when the GLC was abolished, and although losing some powers which have been repatriated to the GLA they still retain many areas they did not control under the GLC. The territorial police force for the 32 London boroughs is the Metropolitan Police Service, more commonly referred to as the Metropolitan Police, or simply "the Met". The City of London has its own police force, the City of London Police. Health services in London are managed by the national government via the NHS. Greater London is divided into five Strategic Health Authorities [http://www.nhs.uk/england/authoritiestrusts/sha/MapSearch.aspx?rg=Y21]. ==Transport and Infrastructure== Transport is one of the four areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control is limited. The executive agency which runs London's transport system is Transport for London (TfL). The public transport network is one of the most extensive in the world, but faces serious congestion and reliability issues. ===Rail=== image:london.underground.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The London Underground at Green Park tube station|Green Park station. London's Underground Railway is the oldest in the world, and possibly one of the busiest. It is thought that more than 3 million people use the Underground every day. The Underground has in recent decades suffered from a lack of sufficient investment since the sums of money needed to keep it fully modernised are very high. This has led to congestion and delays for passengers in some areas of the network, although there have also been improvements, for example the opening of the Jubilee Line extension. Recently the London Rail and Tram network has received substantial funding. London has the second largest urban rail system in the world after Tokyo. It includes: *Rail transport in Great Britain|Mainline services *London Underground *Tramlink *Docklands Light Rail *Heathrow Express *Eurostar Many of the UK's rail lines radiate from London. London's rail termini are: Blackfriars station|Blackfriars, Cannon Street station|Cannon Street, Charing Cross railway station|Charing Cross, Euston station|Euston, Fenchurch Street railway station|Fenchurch Street, Kings Cross railway station|Kings Cross, Liverpool Street station|Liverpool Street, London Bridge station|London Bridge (which also has through platforms), Marylebone station|Marylebone, Paddington station|Paddington, St Pancras railway station|St. Pancras, Victoria Station (London)|Victoria and Waterloo station|Waterloo. With the exception of Fenchurch Street, all of these stations also have associated London Underground stations. The Heathrow Express is not strictly a part of the public rail system, but is owned by BAA plc. As of 2005, Transport for London runs the London Underground (the world's first underground rail network or metro), commonly also known as "The Tube". The national government's recently introduced public-private partnership|public–private partnerships to the London Underground|Underground despite opposition from many parties, including the Mayor of London. The largest project currently underway is the Channel Tunnel Rail Link|Channel Tunnel Rail Link, (CTRL) Phase 2, which will provide fast Eurostar rail services all the way from Stratford in East London, England|East London to the CTRL Phase 1, which was completed in 2003, and on via the Channel Tunnel to Paris, Brussels and other destinations in continental Europe. Currently Eurostar operates out of Waterloo International Terminal at Waterloo, and Eurostar trains have to traverse a circuitous route over local railway tracks through Vauxhall, Clapham and Brixton before connecting to the CTRL Phase 1 at Ebbsfleet in Kent. The CTRL Phase 2 project involves a huge civil engineering project to construct a tunnel from Stratford to St Pancras Station (now completed), where a major renovation and redesign of the terminal will open for Eurostar train services in 2007. Eurostar will then run from London to Paris on high speed track for its entire journey. The CTRL project is significant in that it represents the first new major rail line to be built in the UK for over 100 years. An ambitious project is Crossrail, which proposes a new east-west tunnel traversing central London. Financing for this has not yet been agreed. Smaller projects include extensions to the East London Line of the Underground, and to the Docklands Light Railway. The tramlink|tram system is also being extended, particularly in Croydon, in South London. There are far fewer Underground rail lines in South London than in North London. This is partly because the underlying geology of South London is much less favourable for tunnelling than it is north of the Thames. It also reflects the concentration of the network on Central London, which was focused to north of the Thames to a greater extent when most of the underground lines were built than is the case today. South London relies on over-ground commuter lines to a greater extent, but these tend to offer less frequent services. The North London Line runs from Canning Town in East London all the way to Kew in the west, going through Hackney, Hampstead and Acton on the way. Until 2003 there was also an underground railway for mail transport, the London Post Office Railway. ''See also:'' *:Category:London's railways *Rail transport in Great Britain ===Roads=== Most of the streets of central London were laid out before cars were invented and London's road network is often congested. Attempts to tackle this go back at least to the 1740s, when the New Road was built through the fields north of the city; it is now just another congested central London thoroughfare. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, new wide roads such as Victoria Embankment, Shaftesbury Avenue and Kingsway were created. Some drastic plans for motorways in the heart of the city were put forward in the decades immediately after World War II, but they came to little due to the costs involved and objections to the mass demolitions required. By the end of the 20th century policy swung towards a preference for public transport improvements. The most significant road scheme in the London area in the late 20th century was probably the M25 motorway|M25 orbital motorway, many sections of which are outside the boundaries of Greater London. There is also an inner circular route, comprised of the North Circular (the A406 road|A406 from Gunnersbury to West Ham) and the South Circular (the A205 road|A205). This route is narrow and inadequate in places, especially in South London. Many of the UK's motorways radiate from London. These are: M1 motorway (England)|M1 (to the north); M11 motorway|M11 (north east); M2 motorway|M2 and M20 motorway|M20 (south east); M23 motorway|M23 (south); M3 motorway|M3 (south west); M4 motorway|M4 (west); M40 motorway|M40 (north west). Various other trunk roads start in London, for example the A1 road|A1 (The A1 road|Great North Road), the A10 road|A10 (to Cambridge), the A2 road|A2 (to Dover), the A20 road|A20 (via Folkestone to Dover) and the A3 road|A3 (to Portsmouth). ====Buses and taxis==== {{main|Buses in London}} London's famous red double decker buses are now run by private companies, although it is a requirement that the buses still be painted red. However the iconic red "Routemaster" bus has now almost disappeared. There have been major improvements to the bus service in recent years, and passenger journeys are now more than 5 million a day, which is around 2 million more than on the Underground. Another icon, the famous London taxi Hackney carriage|black cab remains a common sight. ====Cars==== In February 2003, Transport for London (TfL) introduced a radical scheme to charge private motorists pound sterling|£5.00 per day for driving vehicles within a designated area of Central London during peak hours: the London Congestion Charge|Congestion Charge. This scheme has succeeded in significantly reducing traffic congestion, but remains controversial. The charge will rise to £8 in July 2005. ===Air travel=== Image:Heathrow.view.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|London Heathrow, the world's busiest international airport. London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow, 10 miles west of London, is London's principal airport and a major hub. It is currently the world's busiest airport|busiest international airport in the world, with four terminal buildings. A fifth terminal will open in 2008. London Gatwick Airport and London Stansted Airport are also World's busiest airport|large international airports, with approximately 30 million and 20 million passengers a year respectively. They are both outside the boundaries of Greater London, as is the fourth largest airport which serves London, London Luton Airport. Dedicated direct rail services serve Gatwick and Stansted, Luton is served by fast Thameslink trains with only one or two intermediate stops, and the Heathrow Express and London Underground Piccadilly Line both serve Heathrow. London's fifth largest international airport, and the one closest to the city centre, is London City Airport in Docklands. Other airfields in Greater London include RAF Biggin Hill|Biggin Hill, and Northolt Aerodrome|Northolt, and others close to London include Manston Airport|Manston in Kent and Southend Airport|Southend in Essex. ===Water transport=== Image:London_Festival_Pier.JPG|thumb|left|150px|The Festival Pier on the River Thames. The River Thames is navigable to ocean going vessels as far as London Bridge, and to substantial craft well past Greater London. Historically, the river was one of London's main transport arteries. This is no longer the case, but there are still small scale passenger services, and a large number of leisure cruises operate on the river. Additionally some bulk cargoes are carried on the river, and the Mayor of London wishes to increase this use. London also has several Canals of the United Kingdom|canals, including the Regent's Canal which links the Thames to the Grand Union Canal and thus to the waterway network across much of England. These canals are no longer used to transport goods, but they are popular with leisure cruisers. ===Electric power supply=== Several power stations were built to generate electricity in the centre of London, including the famous power stations at Bankside and Battersea (both now disused). Bankside power station has now been converted into Tate Modern, but still houses part of a large electricity transformer substation (you can hear it humming when you visit Tate Modern). HVDC Kingsnorth has been a unique element of the London power grid since 1975, the first urban high voltage direct current transmission system in the world. It was subsequently converted to standard 3-phase alternating current. ===Water=== The Thames Water Ring Main supplies much of London with water. Sewage disposal was historically a problem, causing major pollution of the Thames and potable water supplies. London suffered from major outbreaks of cholera and typhus well into the mid-1800s. Indeed, the problem was so severe that Parliament was suspended on occasion due to the stench from the river. These problems were solved when Sir Joseph Bazalgette completed his system of intercepting mains to divert sewage from the Thames to outfalls east of London, where the tide would sweep the sewage out to sea. ==Education== ===Universities and Colleges=== London has the largest student population of any British city, although not the highest per capita. Universities in London may be divided into two groups: First, the federal University of London, which, with over 100,000 students, is the largest university in the United Kingdom. It comprises over 50 colleges and institutes with a high degree of autonomy. Constituent colleges have their own admissions procedures, and are effectively universities in their own right, although all degrees are awarded by the University of London rather than the individual colleges. The largest and most prestigious colleges include University College London (UCL), Imperial College London|Imperial College, King's College London, Queen Mary, University of London and the London School of Economics, while smaller schools and institutes include the School of Oriental and African Studies, the Institute of Education, and Birkbeck, University of London|Birkbeck College, which specialises in part time and mature students. Secondly, there are the independent universities, most of which were polytechnics until UK polytechnics were granted university status in Further and Higher Education Act, 1992|1992. ===Arts Education=== London is Britain's leading centre for arts education. London's four Music school|music conservatories are the Royal College of Music, the Royal Academy of Music, and Trinity College of Music, and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. Other drama schools include Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts ("RADA"), and the Central School of Speech and Drama. Art schools include Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, Chelsea School of Art, and Camberwell School of Art, (all part of the University of the Arts), and Goldsmith's College and the Slade School of Art (both part of the University of London), and The Royal College of Art. The former Hornsey School of Art is now part of Middlesex University. ===Medical education=== There are many medical schools in London, some of which are centuries old, for example Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry|Barts, Guy's Hospital|Guy's, and St Thomas' Hospital|St. Thomas'. ===Research=== Imperial College London|Imperial College is a leading centre of scientific research and stands alongside MIT and other US universities in terms of international reputation. The Royal Institution is an historic and important repository and proponent of the acquisition of scientific knowledge through research and study. ===Schools=== Most state schools in London are run by the London Boroughs. In common with other large cities in the UK, there are problems in some inner city schools, particularly those in less affluent areas. It is difficult to retain teachers in struggling schools. London's high property prices mean that teachers are often unable to afford to buy their own homes, which forces many to moving to more affordable parts of the country. There are many private schools in Greater London including some of England's best known public school (UK)|public schools such as Harrow School|Harrow and Westminster School|Westminster. ==Media== The British media is concentrated in London. This fact is sometimes accused of creating a "London bias" in the media's output. The British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC, which remains Britain's most respected news and media organisation, is based in London, though it also has centres in many other UK cities, from which much regional broadcasting emanates. Other TV companies including ITV plc|ITV and BSkyB, are also London based. Channel 4 and Five (TV)|Five are also London based, as are a great many TV production companies. The English newspaper market is dominated by List of newspapers in the United Kingdom|national newspapers, and the majority of them are edited in London. Until the 1970s, most of the national newspapers were concentrated in Fleet Street, but the 1980s, with the advent of computerised printing technologies saw most move away from the confines of Fleet Street to larger premises with automated printing works, notably to Wapping, near Tower Bridge. The move was resisted strongly by the printing trade unions SOGAT 82, and strike action at the News International buildings in Wapping in 1986 saw violent skirmishes. The last major news agency in Fleet Street, Reuters, moved to Canary Wharf in 2003, but ''Fleet Street'' is still commonly used as a collective term for the national press. London is at the centre of British film and television production industries, with major studio facilities on the western fringes of the conurbation and a large post production industry centred in Soho. London is one of the two leading centres of English language publishing alongside New York. Globally important media companies based in London range from publishing group Pearson PLC|Pearson, to the information agency Reuters, to the world's number two advertising business WPP Group. The local media generally has a lower profile than the national media in London as in the rest of England, but there are some important local outlets. London has its own local daily evening newspaper, the ''Evening Standard'', and a free newspaper called ''Metro'', is distributed in the morning, mainly at railway stations. The BBC's operates BBC London 94.9|BBC London radio, and there are several independent radio stations, including Capital FM and Kiss FM. ==Religion== Image:westminster abbey night.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Westminster Abbey. When Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine of Canterbury|St. Augustine to bring England into the Catholic fold in 597 CE, it was intended that the envoy should become "Archbishop of London", as the city was remembered as the capital of Roman Britain. In the event, the saint received his most hospitable reception in the Kingdom of Kent, and the archiepiscopal see was founded at Canterbury. Nonetheless London has been at the centre of England's religious life for much of its history, and each Archbishop of Canterbury has traditionally spent much of his time in London, where he has an official residence at Lambeth Palace. London's two Anglican bishops are the Bishop of London, whose see is London north of the Thames, and whose throne is in London's grandest church, the baroque St Paul's Cathedral|St. Paul's Cathedral (designed by Sir Christopher Wren), and the Bishop of Southwark, w